Acoustic cameras turn invisible sound into visible images. This guide explains how they work, where they're used, and how to choose the right one for your application. What Is an Acoustic Camera? An acoustic camera is a device that locates and visualizes sound sources in real time. It combines a microphone array — typically 64 to 200+ MEMS microphones arranged in a specific pattern — with a video camera and signal processing software. The result is a color-coded overlay on a live video feed, showing exactly where sound is coming from and how loud it is. Think of it as a thermal camera, but for sound instead of heat. Where a thermal camera shows hot spots in red, an acoustic camera shows loud spots — pinpointing the exact location of a leak, a faulty bearing, or an electrical discharge that you can't see with your eyes. The technology was originally developed for aerospace and automotive NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) testing. Today, it has expanded into industrial maintenance, energy utilities, manufacturing quality control, and building acoustics. How Does an Acoustic Camera Work? How an acoustic camera uses beamforming: sound waves arrive at each microphone with different time delays (Δt), the processor combines all signals, and outputs a color-coded sound map. The Microphone Array At the core of every acoustic camera is a microphone array — a precisely arranged set of MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) microphones. The number of microphones directly affects performance: 64 microphones: Entry-level, suitable for general-purpose sound source localization 128 microphones: Professional-grade, better resolution and dynamic range 200+ microphones: High-end, capable of detecting subtle sources in noisy environments The spatial arrangement of these microphones matters as much as the count. Common configurations include circular, spiral (Fibonacci), and grid patterns. Each has trade-offs: spiral arrays offer good broadband performance, while grid arrays are better for near-field measurements. Beamforming: The Core Algorithm The key technology behind acoustic cameras is beamforming — a signal processing technique that combines signals from multiple microphones to "focus" on specific locations in space. Here's a simplified explanation: A sound wave arrives at each microphone at slightly different times (because each microphone is at a different distance from the source) The software calculates the expected time delay for every possible source location in the field of view For each candidate location, it shifts and sums the microphone signals according to the calculated delays Locations where the shifted signals add up constructively are identified as sound sources This process is repeated for every pixel in the image, producing a "sound map" that shows the spatial distribution of sound energy. Beamforming vs. Acoustic Holography There are two main acoustic imaging technologies: FeatureBeamformingAcoustic Holography (NAH)Best frequency rangeMid to high frequencies (>500 Hz)Low frequencies (<2 kHz)Measurement distanceFar-field (>1 meter)Near-field (<30 cm from source)ResolutionLimited by wavelength and array sizeHigher resolution at low frequenciesSpeedReal-time capableRequires careful scanningBest forLeak detection, general noise mappingEngine NVH, vibration analysis Most modern acoustic cameras use beamforming as the primary method because it works in real time and doesn't require the camera to be positioned close to the source. Some advanced systems support both technologies for maximum flexibility. The Role of the Video Camera The microphone array generates a sound map; the video camera provides the visual reference. The software overlays the sound map onto the video feed as a color-coded heat map, allowing the user to instantly see which component, pipe, or connection is producing the sound. High-end systems use depth cameras (such as Intel RealSense) to create 3D acoustic maps, enabling more accurate source localization on complex geometry. Frequency Range: Why It Matters Different applications require different frequency ranges: ApplicationTypical Frequency RangeWhyCompressed air leak detection20–50 kHzLeaks produce high-frequency hissingPartial discharge detection20–100 kHzElectrical discharges emit ultrasonic signalsMechanical fault detection1–20 kHzBearing wear, misalignment produce audible noiseAutomotive NVH100 Hz–10 kHzRoad noise, wind noise, engine noiseBuilding acoustics50 Hz–8 kHzLow-frequency structure-borne noise An acoustic camera with a frequency range of up to 100 kHz can handle virtually all industrial applications, including ultrasonic leak and partial discharge detection. Cameras limited to 20 kHz are suitable only for audible noise analysis. Key Applications Acoustic camera detecting vacuum leaks in composite materials — the color overlay pinpoints the exact leak location on the surface. Partial discharge detection on high-voltage insulators — the acoustic camera identifies discharge locations from a safe distance, combined with infrared thermal imaging for comprehensive diagnostics. 1. Compressed Air Leak Detection Compressed air is one of the most expensive energy sources in a factory. Studies show that 20–30% of compressed air is lost to leaks. An acoustic camera can scan an entire production line in minutes, identifying leaks that are invisible and inaudible to human ears. Why acoustic cameras beat traditional methods: Ultrasonic leak detectors require you to check one point at a time; an acoustic camera scans an entire area at once Visual overlay pinpoints the exact location — no guessing Many systems can estimate leak rate and annual cost, helping you prioritize repairs 2. Electrical Partial Discharge Detection Partial discharge (PD) is an early warning sign of insulation failure in high-voltage equipment — transformers, switchgear, cables, and bus bars. Left undetected, PD leads to complete insulation breakdown and potentially catastrophic failure. Acoustic cameras detect PD by capturing the ultrasonic emissions (typically 20–100 kHz) that accompany electrical discharge. The advantage over traditional PD detection methods: Non-contact: No need to de-energize equipment Real-time visualization: See exactly where the discharge is occurring Safe distance: Inspect live equipment from several meters away 3. Mechanical Fault Diagnosis Worn bearings, misaligned shafts, loose components, and valve leaks all produce characteristic sound signatures. An acoustic camera can identify and locate these faults before they lead to unplanned downtime. Common use cases: Motor and pump bearing wear detection Steam trap malfunction Valve leak identification Gearbox noise analysis 4. Automotive and Aerospace NVH Testing This is where acoustic cameras originated. NVH engineers use them to: Identify wind noise sources on vehicle bodies Locate rattles and squeaks in interior trim Analyze tire/road noise contributions Map engine noise radiation patterns Validate sound package effectiveness For NVH applications, large-aperture arrays (200+ microphones) provide the resolution needed to distinguish closely spaced sources. 5. Noise Compliance and Building Acoustics Environmental noise regulations require manufacturers to identify and reduce noise emissions. Acoustic cameras help: Map factory noise sources for compliance reporting Identify noise paths in buildings (walls, windows, HVAC) Verify effectiveness of noise barriers and enclosures 6. UAV-Mounted Acoustic Inspection A newer application: mounting acoustic cameras on drones for inspection of hard-to-reach infrastructure. Applications include: Power line and substation inspection Wind turbine blade inspection Pipeline corridor leak surveys Tall structure noise mapping Types of Acoustic Cameras Four form factors of acoustic cameras: Handheld (CRY8124), Fixed-Mount (CRY2623M), Large Array (CRY8500 SonoCAM Pi), and UAV-Mounted (CRY2626G). Handheld Acoustic Cameras Portable, battery-powered devices for field use. Typically 64–128 microphones with a built-in display. Best for maintenance rounds, leak detection, and quick inspections. Pros: Portable, easy to use, quick deployment Cons: Limited microphone count, smaller array = lower resolution at distance Fixed/Mounted Acoustic Cameras Permanently installed for continuous monitoring. Used in power substations, data centers, and critical infrastructure. Can run 24/7 with automated alerts. Pros: Continuous monitoring, automated alerting, no operator needed Cons: Fixed field of view, higher installation cost Large-Array Systems 200+ microphones on a larger frame. Used for NVH testing, pass-by noise measurement, and research applications. Often mounted on tripods or overhead structures. Pros: Highest resolution, widest frequency range, best for complex analysis Cons: Not portable, requires setup, higher cost UAV-Mounted Systems Lightweight acoustic arrays designed for drone mounting. Used for remote inspection of power lines, pipelines, and industrial facilities. Pros: Access to hard-to-reach locations, large-area surveys Cons: Flight time limits, vibration interference, regulatory requirements How to Choose the Right Acoustic Camera Quick decision guide: Choose your acoustic camera based on primary application. Step 1: Define Your Primary Application Your application determines the minimum specifications: ApplicationMin. MicrophonesFrequency RangeForm FactorCompressed air leak detection64Up to 50 kHzHandheldPartial discharge detection64–128Up to 100 kHzHandheld or fixedMechanical fault diagnosis64Up to 20 kHzHandheldNVH testing128–200+100 Hz–20 kHzLarge arrayContinuous monitoring64–128Application-dependentFixedDrone inspection64–128Up to 50 kHzUAV-mounted Step 2: Consider the Environment Noisy factory floor? You need more microphones and advanced algorithms to separate the target signal from background noise Outdoor use? Look for weather-resistant designs and wind noise rejection Hazardous area? Check for ATEX/IECEx certification Large distance? More microphones = better resolution at range Step 3: Evaluate the Software The hardware captures the data; the software turns it into actionable information. Key software features to look for: Real-time display: See the sound map live as you scan Frequency filtering: Isolate specific frequency bands to focus on particular issues Leak rate estimation: Quantify the cost of leaks in dollars or energy units Reporting: Generate professional reports with screenshots, measurements, and recommendations AI-assisted detection: Automatic identification of leak patterns and fault signatures Step 4: Compare Specifications Key specs to compare across manufacturers: SpecificationWhat It MeansWhat to Look ForMicrophone countMore mics = better resolution and sensitivity64 minimum; 128+ for demanding applicationsFrequency rangeDetermines what you can detectUp to 100 kHz for PD and ultrasonic leaksDynamic rangeAbility to measure both quiet and loud sources>70 dB for industrial environmentsAngular resolutionAbility to separate nearby sourcesSmaller is better; depends on frequency and distanceFrame rateHow quickly the sound map updates>10 fps for real-time scanningWeight and sizePortability<2 kg for handheld daily-use devicesBattery lifeRuntime for field use>3 hours for a full shift of inspectionsIP ratingDust and water resistanceIP54 or higher for industrial environments CRYSOUND Acoustic Camera Solutions CRYSOUND offers one of the widest product lines in the acoustic camera market — covering handheld, fixed-mount, large-array, and UAV-mounted form factors from a single manufacturer. Product Lineup CRY2624: 128-microphone handheld acoustic camera with ATEX certification — portable, field-ready, and safe for hazardous environments CRY8124: 200 MEMS microphones, frequency range up to 100 kHz — handles both audible noise analysis and ultrasonic applications (leak detection + partial discharge) in a single device CRY2623M: Fixed-mount version for 24/7 continuous monitoring of substations and critical infrastructure CRY8500 Series (SonoCAM Pi): Large spiral microphone array for NVH testing, pass-by noise measurement, and advanced acoustic research CRY2626G: Drone-mounted acoustic camera for remote inspection of power lines, pipelines, and wind turbines CRYSOUND acoustic camera product family: from handheld to drone-mounted solutions. Key Differentiator 1: Modular Sensor Expansion Unlike most competitors that offer a fixed-function device, CRYSOUND's acoustic cameras support external sensor modules for expanded capabilities: Infrared thermal imaging module: Combines acoustic and thermal data in a single view — when inspecting power equipment, engineers can simultaneously see the acoustic signature of partial discharge and the thermal hot spot of overheating components. This dual-mode inspection is widely used in power utilities for comprehensive substation diagnostics. IA3104 Contact Ultrasound Sensor: An external contact-type ultrasonic probe designed specifically for valve internal leak detection. The sensor couples directly to the metal surface of a valve, capturing high-frequency ultrasonic signals generated by internal leakage. Combined with intelligent analytics and guided workflows, it automates the full diagnostic process — from data acquisition to leak classification. This is critical for preventive maintenance of oil pipeline valves and natural gas network valves. This modular approach means a single CRYSOUND acoustic camera can serve as a comprehensive inspection platform, rather than requiring separate instruments for each detection task. Key Differentiator 2: Acoustic Link Mobile App CRYSOUND's Acoustic Link is a companion mobile app that connects to the acoustic camera via Wi-Fi. It enables: On-device preview: View captured photos, videos, and inspection reports on your phone or tablet — no PC required Defect-specific visualization: Retrieve gas-leak acoustic maps, partial-discharge patterns, and thermal images directly in the app One-tap sharing: Save results locally and share via the system share sheet for instant communication with colleagues and customers Automated report generation: Generate and export professional inspection reports from the field, eliminating the need to return to the office for post-processing For field inspection teams, this means faster turnaround from detection to documentation. Key Differentiator 3: Complete Acoustic Ecosystem Beyond acoustic cameras, CRYSOUND manufactures electroacoustic test systems (CRY6151B), acoustic test chambers, and calibration equipment — enabling complete acoustic testing solutions from a single vendor. With 28 years of experience and over 10,000 customers across 90+ countries, CRYSOUND brings deep domain expertise to every product. Explore CRYSOUND Acoustic Camera Products → Frequently Asked Questions What is the difference between an acoustic camera and a sound level meter? A sound level meter measures the overall sound pressure level at a single point. It tells you how loud it is, but not where the sound comes from. An acoustic camera shows both the location and the intensity of sound sources, making it far more useful for diagnosing and fixing noise problems. How far away can an acoustic camera detect a leak? Detection range depends on the leak size, background noise, microphone count, and frequency range. A typical handheld acoustic camera with 64–128 microphones can detect a 1mm compressed air leak from 10–30 meters away. Larger leaks can be detected from even greater distances. Can an acoustic camera work in a noisy factory? Yes. Modern acoustic cameras use beamforming algorithms that can isolate specific sound sources even in high-background-noise environments. The key is having enough microphones — more microphones provide better noise rejection and higher signal-to-noise ratio. Do I need training to use an acoustic camera? Basic operation is straightforward — point the camera, look at the screen, and identify the highlighted areas. Most users can start finding leaks within minutes. However, interpreting complex acoustic patterns (NVH analysis, partial discharge classification) benefits from training and experience. What is the ROI of an acoustic camera? For compressed air leak detection alone, the ROI is typically measured in months. A single quarter-inch air leak costs $2,500–$8,000 per year. Most industrial facilities have dozens to hundreds of leaks. An acoustic camera that helps you find and fix these leaks can pay for itself in the first survey. Can acoustic cameras detect gas leaks other than compressed air? Yes. Acoustic cameras can detect any pressurized gas leak that produces turbulent flow noise — including nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, natural gas, and refrigerants. The frequency characteristics may vary by gas type, but the detection principle is the same. Need help choosing the right acoustic camera for your application? Contact CRYSOUND for a personalized recommendation based on your specific requirements.

What Is an Anechoic Chamber? An anechoic chamber is a room designed to completely absorb sound reflections. The walls, ceiling, and (in a full anechoic chamber) the floor are lined with wedge-shaped foam or fibreglass absorbers that prevent sound waves from bouncing back into the room. The result is a controlled acoustic environment that simulates free-field conditions — as if the sound source were suspended in open air with no surfaces nearby. This matters because most acoustic measurements — sound power, directivity, frequency response — require a known, reflection-free environment to produce repeatable, standards-compliant results. Without it, room reflections contaminate the measurement, making results dependent on the specific room rather than the product being tested. Full Anechoic vs Semi-Anechoic (Hemi-Anechoic) Chambers Feature Full Anechoic Semi-Anechoic (Hemi-Anechoic) Absorbing surfaces All 6 surfaces (walls, ceiling, floor) 5 surfaces (walls + ceiling); floor is reflective Floor Wire mesh or perforated metal grid suspended above absorbers Solid, load-bearing concrete or steel Acoustic condition Free-field (no reflections from any direction) Free-field over a reflecting plane Load capacity Limited — cannot support heavy equipment directly Can support vehicles, machinery, industrial equipment Primary standards ISO 3745 (precision sound power) ISO 3744 (engineering sound power), ISO 3745 Typical use Microphone calibration, loudspeaker characterisation, hearing research Automotive NVH, product noise testing, industrial machinery Cost Higher (floor treatment adds significant cost and complexity) Lower (no floor treatment needed) In practice, about 80% of industrial acoustic testing uses semi-anechoic chambers because most test objects — cars, appliances, compressors, power tools — are too heavy for a suspended wire-mesh floor. What Standards Require an Anechoic Chamber? ISO 3745 — Precision Sound Power Measurement The gold standard for sound power determination. Requires either a full anechoic or hemi-anechoic chamber qualified to meet strict free-field deviation limits across the frequency range of interest. The chamber must demonstrate that the inverse-square law holds to within ±1 dB at the measurement positions. Typical cut-off frequency: 80–200 Hz, depending on chamber size and wedge depth. Below this frequency, the chamber no longer behaves as a free field. ISO 3744 — Engineering Sound Power Measurement Less stringent than ISO 3745 but still requires a hemi-anechoic environment. Allows for environmental corrections when the room is not perfectly anechoic, making it practical for production-floor test cells that approximate (but do not perfectly achieve) free-field conditions. ISO 26101 — Qualification of Free-Field Environments Defines how to verify whether a room actually meets free-field requirements. This is the standard used to “qualify” an anechoic or hemi-anechoic chamber — confirming that its acoustic performance matches what is claimed. Other Standards ECMA-74: IT equipment noise measurement (uses ISO 3745 or ISO 3744 as the underlying acoustic method) ANSI S12.55 / S12.56: North American equivalents of ISO 3744/3745 ISO 11201–11205: Various sound pressure level determination methods, some requiring free-field conditions Key Design Considerations 1. Chamber Size and Usable Volume The physical dimensions determine the lowest usable frequency. A general rule: the chamber must be large enough that the distance between the sound source and each measurement microphone is at least one wavelength at the lowest frequency of interest. For a 100 Hz cut-off, the minimum source-to-microphone distance is approximately 3.4 metres, which means the chamber’s internal dimensions (excluding wedges) should be at least 7–8 metres per side for a hemi-anechoic chamber. 2. Wedge Absorbers The depth of the absorbing wedges determines the low-frequency performance. Deeper wedges absorb lower frequencies: Wedge Depth Approximate Low-Frequency Cut-off 200 mm ~500 Hz 500 mm ~200 Hz 1000 mm ~80–100 Hz Wedge materials include melamine foam (lightweight, fire-retardant) and fibreglass (better low-frequency absorption but heavier). 3. Background Noise An anechoic chamber must also be well-isolated from external noise. The ambient noise level inside the chamber (with no source operating) should be at least 6 dB — and preferably 15 dB — below the sound pressure level generated by the test object at the measurement positions. This typically requires a chamber built with multiple layers of massive construction (concrete, steel) and vibration-isolated mounting to prevent structure-borne noise transmission. 4. Vibration Isolation For NVH testing (especially automotive), the chamber floor may include vibration-isolated foundations or air-spring mounting systems to prevent road-simulator or dynamometer vibrations from coupling into the acoustic measurement environment. What If You Do Not Have an Anechoic Chamber? Not every organisation can invest $500K–$2M+ in a purpose-built anechoic facility. Several practical alternatives exist: Sound Intensity Method (ISO 9614) Sound intensity measurements are inherently less sensitive to room reflections because intensity is a vector quantity — it distinguishes between outgoing sound (from the source) and incoming sound (reflections from room surfaces). This allows sound power determination in ordinary rooms without anechoic treatment. Trade-off: Requires specialised intensity probes and more complex measurement procedures. Acoustic Test Boxes For small products (electronics, components, transducers), a desktop-sized acoustic test box provides a controlled, low-noise environment that approximates anechoic conditions within a defined frequency range. These are significantly cheaper than a full chamber and can be placed directly on a production line. CRYSOUND offers a comprehensive range of acoustic test chambers designed for different testing scenarios: CRY723 Pneumatic Acoustic Test Chamber — A compact, shell-type test box ideal for smartphones and wireless wearables. Combine two CRY723 units with a CRY6151B analyzer for complete audio, ENC, and ANC measurements. CRY725 Pneumatic Acoustic Test Chamber — Designed for larger wireless devices such as laptops and walkie-talkies. Compatible with comprehensive testers and vector network analyzers. CRY7865 Pneumatic Acoustic Test Chamber — A high-performance drawer-style chamber with both acoustic isolation and RF shielding, ideal for production line audio and noise measurements of wireless electronic devices. CRY7412 Ultra-Quiet Chamber — An ultra-quiet chamber for testing very quiet sounds in noisy environments. Features a unique double-shell design for superior noise isolation. All models support pneumatic operation for fast, repeatable DUT loading on production lines — a practical alternative when a full anechoic chamber is not justified by the application. Portable Acoustic Arrays Modern acoustic imaging cameras can identify and localise noise sources in situ — in the factory, on the production line, or in the field — without any anechoic treatment. While not a substitute for standards-compliant sound power measurements, acoustic imaging enables rapid noise source diagnosis that previously required dedicated chamber time. The CRY8500 Series SonoCam Pi Acoustic Camera, is a portable acoustic imaging camera that delivers real-time sound source visualisation — ideal for R&D engineers working on noise source identification in automotive NVH, industrial equipment, and consumer electronics. In-Situ Sound Power (ISO 3744 with Corrections) ISO 3744 allows environmental correction factors to account for room reflections. If the correction is small (typically less than 2 dB), the measurement can be performed in a reasonably quiet industrial space without a purpose-built chamber. The SonoDAQ Pro data acquisition system combined with OpenTest software supports automated sound power calculations with environmental corrections built in — enabling standards-compliant measurements without a dedicated anechoic chamber. Frequently Asked Questions How much does an anechoic chamber cost? Costs vary widely based on size, performance requirements, and cut-off frequency. A small hemi-anechoic room for component testing may start around $100K–$300K, while a large automotive-grade full anechoic chamber can exceed $2M. For smaller products, acoustic test boxes offer similar isolation at a fraction of the cost. What is the difference between an anechoic chamber and a soundproof room? A soundproof room blocks external noise from entering but does nothing about internal reflections. An anechoic chamber both blocks external noise and absorbs internal reflections, creating a free-field environment for precision measurement. Can I do acoustic testing without an anechoic chamber? Yes. Depending on your application, alternatives include acoustic test boxes for small products, sound intensity methods (ISO 9614), portable acoustic imaging cameras like the CRY8500 SonoCam Pi, and in-situ measurements with environmental corrections using systems like SonoDAQ Pro. What frequency range does an anechoic chamber cover? The usable frequency range depends on the wedge depth and chamber dimensions. Most chambers are effective from their cut-off frequency (typically 80–200 Hz) up to 20 kHz or beyond. Below the cut-off, the chamber no longer provides adequate absorption. How is an anechoic chamber qualified? Chamber qualification follows ISO 26101, which verifies that the inverse-square law (sound pressure decreasing by 6 dB per doubling of distance) holds within specified tolerances at the measurement positions. Conclusion Anechoic chambers remain the gold standard for precision acoustic measurement — but they are not the only option. Understanding what your application truly requires helps you choose the right solution, whether that is a full anechoic room, a compact acoustic test chamber, or an in-situ measurement approach. At CRYSOUND, we provide the full spectrum: from purpose-built anechoic chambers to portable acoustic test boxes and advanced measurement systems — so you can get accurate results regardless of your facility constraints. Contact us to discuss which solution fits your testing requirements.

In many practical applications, data acquisition is not performed in an “ideal laboratory” environment. The device under test may be connected to mains power, distribution cabinets, frequency converters, or large electromechanical systems, while the acquisition card on the other side is connected via USB or Ethernet to a computer—sometimes operated directly by a person. These two sides are often not at the same electrical potential. If there is no effective electrical isolation inside the data acquisition card, this potential difference may propagate through signal lines, shields, or ground paths to the system side, leading to measurement distortion, interface malfunction, or even safety hazards. This is the fundamental reason why isolation exists in data acquisition systems. What Is the Isolation Rating of a Data Acquisition Card? In a data acquisition system, the isolation rating is not a simple voltage number, nor is it equivalent to “the voltage that the input can directly withstand.” It describes whether there is a reliable electrical isolation barrier between the measurement side (connected to sensors and the device under test) and the system side (connected to the host computer, communication interfaces, and power supply), and under what level of voltage stress this isolation remains valid. Isolation principle You can think of isolation as a bridge between two islands: The bridge allows information to pass—measurement data, digital communication, control signals. But it blocks dangerous currents—fault currents, ground-loop currents, and energy that could carry high potential to the host side. For this reason, isolation in data acquisition systems typically addresses both safety and measurement stability at the same time. Why Is Isolation Often More Important Than Accuracy Specifications? In many field applications, engineers do not encounter problems such as “insufficient resolution,” but instead: The same system works well in the lab, but noise increases dramatically on site. Once multiple devices are connected together, the data begins to drift. Replacing the computer or using a different power outlet suddenly makes the problem disappear. The common root cause behind these phenomena is often not algorithms or ADC performance, but rather improper handling of electrical potential relationships within the acquisition system. The value of isolation lies precisely here: by breaking unnecessary current loops and limiting the propagation paths of common-mode voltage and fault energy, isolation allows the acquisition system to behave in a controlled and predictable manner even in complex electrical environments. In industry discussions, the core values of isolation usually fall into three categories: signal integrity, safety, and instrument protection. Signal Integrity: Breaking Ground Loops and Improving Common-Mode Rejection Many cases of “inaccurate measurement” are not caused by ADC resolution, but by unwanted currents flowing through ground wires or shields. When the device under test and the host computer, enclosure, or other equipment are at different ground potentials, connecting them via signal cables may form ground loops. Power-line interference and electromagnetic noise then appear as “baseline noise” or ripple in the waveform. Isolation improves this by breaking the current loop paths. Safety: Confine High Potential and Fault Energy to the Measurement Side When measurement points are located near mains power, distribution cabinets, or frequency converters, the real risk is not merely “high voltage,” but where abnormal voltage or fault energy may propagate. If there is no clear electrical isolation between the measurement side and the host side, this energy may travel through signal or ground connections into the computer or communication interfaces, causing equipment damage or safety hazards. Isolation establishes a clear internal safety boundary: high potential and uncertain electrical environments are confined to the measurement side, while the system side—where the host computer and operator reside—remains within a controlled and safe potential range. If an abnormal condition occurs, the problem is contained on the measurement side and does not propagate further. Instrument Protection: A Larger Measurable Window Under High Common-Mode Voltage A non-isolated acquisition system effectively binds the measurement reference ground to system ground or earth. As a result, the measurable input range is centered around earth potential. If the entire signal shifts to a high common-mode potential, the front-end amplifier or ADC may exceed its allowable range or even be damaged. An isolated system allows the measurement reference to “float,” enabling the input measurement window to be centered around the isolated local ground. This permits operation under much higher common-mode voltages, with the ultimate limits determined by the isolation barrier and input protection circuitry together. Commonly Confused Isolation-Related Terms Isolation is often misunderstood because a single term—“isolation voltage”—is used to answer very different questions. The following clarifies these related but distinct concepts. Common-Mode Voltage Common-mode voltage refers to the voltage that is simultaneously applied to both measurement inputs relative to the acquisition system reference ground. It is not the signal of interest. The measurement signal concerns the difference between two input terminals, whereas common-mode voltage describes how high the two terminals are elevated together relative to ground. For example, in battery stacks or floating power systems, the signal itself may be only a few volts, but the entire source may be elevated tens or hundreds of volts above the acquisition card ground. In industrial environments, ground noise or electromagnetic interference may also impose time-varying AC voltage on both measurement leads. These “collectively elevated or oscillating voltages” constitute common-mode voltage. Working Voltage Working voltage is the voltage that can be continuously applied to a device over long periods. It is typically understood as the combination of measured voltage and common-mode voltage, and represents the condition under which the device can operate reliably over time. Withstand Voltage Withstand voltage refers to whether the isolation barrier can survive a very high voltage applied for a short duration without breakdown or damage. To verify this, a dielectric withstand (hipot) test is typically performed. During such a test, a voltage significantly higher than normal operating conditions is applied across the isolation barrier for approximately one minute. If no breakdown, abnormal leakage, or functional damage occurs, the isolation barrier is considered electrically robust. It is critical to note that withstand voltage does not indicate that the device can operate continuously at that voltage. It is a safety and quality verification metric, demonstrating that the insulation will not fail immediately under abnormal or extreme conditions. Input Overvoltage Protection Input overvoltage protection specifies the maximum allowable differential voltage between the positive and negative terminals of the same input channel. Exceeding this limit may damage the input circuitry. This is fundamentally different from isolation withstand voltage: Isolation withstand voltage applies between the measurement side and the system side. Overvoltage protection applies between the positive and negative terminals of the same channel. Measurement Category (CAT) Measurement category defines the severity of transient overvoltage that a measurement system may encounter in its electrical environment. Categories increase from CAT I to CAT IV: CAT I: Low-energy electronic circuits. CAT II: Household appliances and receptacle outlets, typically protected by indoor distribution panels. CAT III: Industrial distribution cabinets and environments with large motors, pumps, or compressors, subject to switching transients and inductive load surges. CAT IV: Outdoor power distribution points exposed to surges and lightning strikes. Pollution Degree Pollution degree describes environmental factors such as dust, moisture, and condensation that affect insulation surfaces. Higher pollution degrees reduce effective insulation performance, requiring higher baseline insulation strength. What Does "1000 V Isolation" Actually Mean? When a specification states “1000 V isolation,” three immediate questions must be asked, otherwise the number has no real comparability: Is it AC or DC? Is it Vrms, Vpk, or Vdc? Is it withstand voltage (short-term) or working voltage (long-term)? What exactly is isolated? Channel-to-ground? Channel-to-channel? Measurement side to USB/host side? The most important takeaway is this: “1000 V isolation withstand” does not automatically mean the system can continuously operate at 1000 V common-mode voltage, nor does it mean that 1000 V can be directly applied to the input. Continuous capability depends on working voltage, measurement category, input overvoltage protection, and the entire system chain including sensors, cables, and terminals. How Isolation Is Implemented: Isolation Barriers and Signal Transfer Methods Isolation is not simply “air separation,” but a combination of structure, materials, and signal-coupling mechanisms. Common isolation signal-transfer methods include: Inductive / Transformer-Based Isolation Inductive isolation transmits energy or information via magnetic fields rather than direct electrical conduction, fundamentally based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Inductive isolation chip block Inside the chip, planar coils are fabricated on silicon or within the package, forming transformer-like structures. Transmitter side: current → coil → alternating magnetic field Receiver side: magnetic field variation → induced voltage → signal recovery Advantages include very high common-mode transient immunity (CMTI), high speed, low jitter, long-term stability, and excellent channel consistency. Disadvantages include higher power consumption and cost compared with capacitive isolation. Capacitive Coupling Capacitive isolation uses the “DC-blocking, AC-passing” property of capacitors to achieve voltage isolation, relying on electric-field variation within the dielectric. Capacitive isolation chip block Signal variation → electric-field variation → displacement current coupling Advantages include low power consumption, small die area, high integration, lower cost, and high speed. Disadvantages include higher sensitivity to common-mode dv/dt, stricter PCB symmetry requirements, and higher dependence on reference-ground layout. Optical Isolation Optical isolation uses light as the isolation medium, with air or transparent insulation providing physical separation. The principle is photoelectric conversion plus spatial isolation. Optical isolation chip block Electrical signal → LED emission → photosensitive device → electrical signal Advantages include simple structure, extremely high withstand voltage, good performance for low-frequency and switching signals, and strong EMC characteristics. Disadvantages include slower speed due to device latency, higher variability, and unsuitability for high-precision synchronous systems. Comparison of Isolation Technologies ItemInductiveCapacitiveOpticalWithstand voltage★★★★☆★★★☆★★★★★Transmission speed★★★★☆★★★★★★★Common-mode immunity★★★★★★★★☆★★EMI immunity★★★☆★★★★★★★★★Stability★★★★★★★★★★★Low power★★★★★★★★★★Suitable for DAQRecommendedRecommendedNot recommended A frequently overlooked but critical metric here is CMTI. In high dv/dt environments such as inverters, SiC/GaN power supplies, and motor drives, the issue is often not how high the static common-mode voltage is, but how fast it changes. Rapid high-voltage transients may couple through parasitic capacitances across the isolation barrier, disrupting or corrupting data transmission. Therefore, isolation must withstand not only voltage magnitude, but also voltage transition speed. Common Isolation Topologies in Data Acquisition Before asking whether a DAQ card is isolated, a more important question should be asked: where is the isolation applied? Different products may use entirely different isolation domains, resulting in very different capability boundaries and application suitability. Common DAQ isolation topologies include: Channel-to-system-ground isolation Bank (group) isolation Channel-to-channel isolation Channel-to-System-Ground Isolation Definition: Each channel (or group of analog front ends) is isolated from system ground and host ground, while channels typically share a common reference ground. Channel-to-system-ground This topology can: Break ground loops between the measurement side and the host side. Prevent high potential or fault energy from reaching the computer, USB, or network interface. Significantly improve stability when measurement and host grounds differ. The entire DAQ effectively “floats” with the device under test, while the host remains on the safe side. Suitable scenarios include industrial field measurements where all channels share the same potential. Bank Isolation Definition: Channels are divided into groups (banks). Each bank has its own isolation domain, with isolation between banks and between each bank and system ground. Bank isolation This topology allows multiple independent systems to be measured simultaneously while preserving multi-channel synchronization within each bank, balancing cost, size, and isolation capability. Channel-to-Channel Isolation Definition: Each channel has a fully independent isolation domain and reference ground. Channel-to-channel isolation Each channel effectively functions as an independent isolated acquisition system, suitable for battery stacks, distributed measurements, and scenarios with large inter-channel potential differences, at the expense of higher cost, size, and system complexity. Isolation Selection: From Parameters to Practical Judgment After understanding isolation concepts, topologies, and voltage ratings, the key question becomes: does a given isolation design truly fit the application? Many misjudgments arise from focusing on a single number such as “1000 V isolation” without clarifying where isolation is applied, for how long, and what additional protections are required. What Is Being Isolated, and Where Does the Isolation Occur? If all measurement objects belong to the same system and there is no potential difference between them, a Channel-to-System Ground Isolation data acquisition card should be selected. If the measurement objects belong to multiple different systems, but the measurement points within each system share the same ground reference, a Bank Isolation (group isolation) architecture should be selected. In this case, measurement points from different systems must not be connected to the same bank of the acquisition card. If all measurement objects belong to the same system but there are significant potential differences between them, a Channel-to-Channel Isolation data acquisition card should be selected. This is the prerequisite for evaluating all isolation-related parameters.If the isolation location is unclear, other voltage specifications are almost meaningless for comparison. Isolation Withstand Voltage of a Data Acquisition System At a minimum, the following information must be clearly specified:whether the voltage is AC or DC, the duration (typically a 1-minute withstand test), and only then the voltage value itself. If a data acquisition card specifies an AC isolation voltage of 1000 V, it means that an AC voltage with a peak value of ±1414 V is applied between the circuit grounds on both sides of the isolation barrier, and after 1 minute the leakage current remains below 0.1 mA. If a data acquisition card specifies a DC isolation voltage of 1000 V, it means that a +1000 V or −1000 V DC voltage is applied between the circuit grounds on both sides of the isolation barrier, and after 1 minute the leakage current remains below 0.1 mA.However, one must not assume that ±1000 V AC can be applied in this case—the two are not equivalent, because different devices have different withstand capabilities for AC and DC voltages. It should be emphasized that the withstand voltages discussed above are short-term withstand ratings. They do not mean that the device can operate continuously at a 1000 V common-mode voltage. They only indicate that the device will not be damaged under those conditions, not that normal operation is guaranteed. Maximum Common-Mode Operating Voltage This is the parameter that deserves particular attention when selecting a data acquisition card. In most cases, it refers to the long-term voltage difference between the measurement side and the system ground. For example, if we want to measure the current on a 220 V mains line, the corresponding common-mode voltage is: 220 V × 1.414 = 311 V Allowing at least a 50% margin, the data acquisition card should therefore support a maximum common-mode operating voltage greater than 466 V. If a specification sheet only provides isolation withstand voltage but does not clearly specify working voltage or maximum common-mode range, extreme caution is required in practical use. Input Voltage Range The input voltage range is also referred to as differential voltage. It defines how much voltage difference the input terminals of a channel can tolerate. The key question is what happens when this limit is exceeded:is the signal clipped, is the input shut down, or is permanent damage caused? This parameter determines whether the device can protect itself under wiring errors or abnormal conditions, or whether it will fail catastrophically. If the distinction between common-mode voltage and differential voltage is still unclear at this point, the following analogy may help. Measuring Across a River In the diagram, the person cannot approach the apple directly because of the river acting as an isolation barrier, so a caliper with an extended handle is used to measure the apple on the opposite bank. The 300 cm distance across the river corresponds to the common-mode voltage in the system, while the measurement range of the caliper (20 cm) corresponds to the differential voltage range. Isolation Structure of the SonoDAQ Module (Bank Isolation Example) After distinguishing between channel-to-ground isolation, bank isolation, and channel-to-channel isolation, as well as various isolation parameters, the next question for a specific product is: where exactly is the isolation boundary drawn? The following figure shows the isolation structure of a SonoDAQ module, illustrating the division of its isolation domains. SonoDAQ Module Isolation From the module structure, it can be clearly seen that SonoDAQ Pro adopts a bank isolation architecture (see Section 6.2). Each module is isolated from the host, while the four channels on each module are not isolated from each other. The module divides functionality and electrical domains into three parts: Measurement Side: Located on the left side of the module, directly connected to sensors and the device under test. This belongs to the measurement-side electrical domain and may be at a high or uncertain common-mode potential. Bank Isolation Domain: Located in the middle of the module, this is the primary isolation barrier between the measurement side and the system side. Multiple channels within the same bank share a common measurement-side reference ground and are collectively isolated from the system side through this isolation domain. As shown in the diagram, two types of isolation circuits are used: capacitive isolation for digital communication and magnetic (transformer-based) isolation for power. System Side: Located on the right side of the module, communicating with the host through the backplane. This side operates under system ground reference and connects to processors, communication interfaces, and the host computer. From Concept to Verification: Isolation Must Be Proven, Not Assumed Through the previous discussion, we have distinguished between differential and common-mode voltages and understood the respective roles of isolation withstand voltage, working voltage, and common-mode capability. While these concepts are not complex in specifications or standards, a more critical question remains in real engineering practice: Do these isolation boundaries actually hold under real-world conditions as the parameters suggest? For example, when the device under test operates at a high common-mode potential, the acquisition system must run online for extended periods, and the host computer and operators must always remain on the safe side. Simply “trusting a specification value” is far from sufficient. Rather than staying at the conceptual level, it is better to return to engineering practice. The following two experiments are not intended to demonstrate extreme parameter limits, but to address a more practical question. For this purpose, SonoDAQ Pro was selected as the test platform—not because of exceptionally high specifications, but because its isolation structure is clear and its boundaries are well defined, making it suitable for engineering-level isolation verification. The experiments are conducted from two perspectives: withstand voltage testing (hipot) and mains-powered incandescent lamp current measurement. Withstand Voltage Test (Hipot) Test objective: To verify that the isolation barrier can withstand high voltage under specified conditions without breakdown, providing an intuitive engineering verification result The general industry definition of dielectric withstand testing is to apply an elevated voltage across an insulation barrier for approximately 1 minute. Passing the test indicates that the insulation system has sufficient electrical strength under those conditions, while also clarifying the purpose and limitations of the test to avoid misinterpretation. Test equipment: WB2671 hipot tester Test conditions: 1000 V DC, duration 1 minute, leakage current threshold 0.1 mA Withstand Voltage Test Test Results 1.02 kV DC, duration 1 minute, leakage current = 0.03 mA, with no breakdown, flashover, or arcing observed. Explanation: SonoDAQ Pro adopts a bank isolation architecture, where the six slots are isolated from each other. Therefore, during testing, the hipot voltage was applied between Channel 1 of two adjacent modules. 220 V Mains Incandescent Lamp Current Measurement Experiment Test objective: To demonstrate how the data acquisition card can measure signals in a high-voltage system under real mains conditions, and to verify measurement correctness. Why an incandescent lamp? Its steady-state behavior closely resembles a resistive load, making current waveforms intuitive and easy to interpret. The cold filament has low resistance, producing a clear inrush current at power-on, which is suitable for demonstrating transient capture and trigger recording capability. 220 V Mains Incandescent Lamp Current Measurement Wiring In the diagram, the left side is the high-voltage area directly connected to the 220 V AC source. After all wiring is completed, the power plug is inserted. The right side contains the isolated data acquisition card, forming the low-voltage area. The computer and operator remain entirely on the safe side. The experiment used SonoDAQ Pro hardware with OpenTest software. The incandescent lamp was rated at 220 V / 60 W. The following photos show the setup before power-on (left) and after power-on (right). 220 V Mains Incandescent Lamp Current Measurement Test configuration: sampling rate 192 kSa/s, AC coupling for the input signal. The acquisition card directly measured the voltage across a 1.4 Ω shunt resistor. Using the “Record” function in OpenTest, the entire power-on and power-off process was recorded. Steady-State Current Waveform Steady-state current:Vrms = 386 mV → Irms = 386 / 1.4 = 275.7 mAFrequency f = 49.962 Hz Startup Transient Current Startup current:Vpeak = 2.868 V → Ipeak = 2.868 / 1.4 = 2.05 A Crest factor calculation:CF = Ipeak / Irms = 2.05 / 0.2757 = 7.44 Incandescent lamp power calculation:P = 220 V × 0.2757 A = 60.65 W Conclusion SonoDAQ Pro can accurately measure the operating current of an incandescent lamp connected directly to the mains without using a current transformer. This experiment does not merely verify whether mains signals can be measured; it verifies whether isolation can simultaneously ensure system safety and measurement accuracy when the device under test operates at a high common-mode potential over extended periods. Isolation Is Not a Parameter, but a Boundary Isolation is not “a single voltage value,” but rather defines where risk is confined and whether signals can still pass reliably. A reliable isolation solution is the result of structure, parameters, topology, and application scenario all being valid at the same time. To see more imformation about the SonoDAQ, please fill in the form below, and we will recommend the best solution to address your needs.

Sound is everywhere in our daily life: birdsong, street noise, engine roar, even the faint airflow from an air conditioner. For people, sound is not only about whether we can hear it, but whether it feels comfortable, is disturbing, or poses a risk. The same 70 dB can feel completely different; and when something feels "noisy", the cause may come from the source itself, the propagation direction, or reflections from the environment. When we turn this "perception" into quantifiable engineering data, the three most easily confused concepts are sound pressure, sound intensity, and sound power. They answer: Sound pressure: how loud it is at a specific point; Sound intensity: how much sound energy is propagating in a particular direction; Sound power: how loud the source is in terms of its total acoustic emission; This article explains sound pressure, sound intensity, and sound power in an intuitive way, so you can better understand sound. Sound Waves In engineering acoustics, sound pressure, sound intensity, and sound power are three fundamental and important physical quantities. Before introducing them in detail, we need the concept of a sound wave. A vibrating source sets the surrounding air particles into vibration. The particles move away from their equilibrium position, drive adjacent particles, and those adjacent particles generate a restoring force that pushes the particles back toward equilibrium. This near-to-far propagation of particle motion through the medium is what we call a sound wave. Figure 1. Propagation of a Sound Wave in Air Sound Pressure When there is no sound wave in space, the atmospheric pressure is the static pressure p0. When a sound wave is present, a pressure fluctuation is superimposed on p0, producing a pressure fluctuation p1. Here p1 is the sound pressure (unit: Pa). Therefore, sound pressure is the instantaneous deviation of the air static pressure caused by the sound wave. The human brain does not respond to the instantaneous amplitude of sound pressure, but it does respond to the root-mean-square (RMS) value of a time-varying pressure. Therefore, the sound pressure p can be expressed as: In practical engineering applications, the sound pressure level Lp: where Pref = 2 × 10-5 Pa is the reference sound pressure. In practice, we usually use sound pressure level (dB) to characterize sound pressure, rather than using pressure in pascals. Why? Figure 2 answers this well. From a library to the entrance of a high-speed rail station, sound pressure may increase by a factor of 100, while sound pressure level increases by only 40 dB. This reflects the difference between a linear scale and a logarithmic scale. From an engineering perspective, using sound pressure directly leads to large numeric variations that are inconvenient for evaluation. Moreover, the human auditory system is closer to a logarithmic response, so sound pressure level better matches hearing. Figure 2. Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level Sound Intensity Sound intensity describes the transfer of acoustic energy. It is the acoustic power passing through a unit area per unit time. It is a vector quantity that is directional, with units of W/m2, defined as the time average of the product of sound pressure and particle velocity: where v(t) denotes the particle velocity vector. Under the ideal plane progressive-wave approximation, sound pressure and particle velocity approximately satisfy: where ρ is the air density, c is the speed of sound. Therefore, the magnitude of sound intensity along the propagation direction can be written as: Similarly, sound intensity has a corresponding intensity level LI: where I0 = 10-12 W/m2 is the reference sound intensity. Compared with sound pressure level measurements, sound intensity measurements have the following characteristics: Directional:it can distinguish whether acoustic energy is propagating outward or flowing back, so under typical field conditions it is often less sensitive to reflections and background noise; Source localization:intensity scanning can directly reveal the main radiation regions and leakage points, making remediation more targeted; Higher system complexity:it typically requires an intensity probe, with higher overall cost and more setup and calibration effort; Figure 3. Sound Intensity Testing A key advantage of sound intensity measurement in engineering applications is that it characterizes both the direction and magnitude of acoustic energy flow. It can separate the contributions of outward radiation from the source and reflected backflow from the environment, so under non-ideal field conditions it tends to be less affected by reflections and background noise. In addition, the sound intensity method can obtain sound power directly by spatially integrating the normal component of intensity over an enclosing surface. Combined with surface scanning, it can identify dominant source regions and locate leakage points. Therefore, it is highly practical and interpretable for noise diagnosis, verification of noise-control measures, and sound power evaluation. The key instrument for sound intensity testing is the sound intensity probe. Unlike a single microphone, an intensity probe is not used merely to measure “how large the pressure is”; it must provide the basic quantities required for calculating intensity (sound pressure and particle velocity). Therefore, the probe typically outputs two synchronous channels and, together with a two-channel data-acquisition front end and dedicated algorithms, yields intensity results. In engineering practice, the probe often includes interchangeable spacers, positioning fixtures, and windshields. Channel amplitude/phase matching, phase calibration capability, and airflow-interference mitigation directly determine the credibility and usable frequency range of intensity measurements. Two types of sound intensity probes are commonly used: P-U probes (pressure-particle-velocity) and P-P probes (pressure-pressure). A P-U probe consists of a microphone and a velocity sensor, measuring sound pressure p(t) and particle velocity v(t) simultaneously. The principle is more direct, but particle-velocity sensors are often more sensitive to airflow, contamination, and environmental conditions, requiring more protection and maintenance in the field and usually costing more. Figure 4. P-U Sound Intensity Probe (Microflown) A P-P probe uses two matched microphones aligned on the same axis. It uses the two pressure signals p1(t) and p2(t) to estimate the particle-velocity component v(t). However, it is sensitive to inter-channel phase matching and the choice of microphone spacing - the spacing determines the effective frequency range: a larger spacing benefits low frequencies, but high frequencies suffer from spatial sampling error; a smaller spacing benefits high frequencies, but low frequencies become more susceptible to phase mismatch and noise. Figure 5. P-P Sound Intensity Probe (GRAS) P-U probes are relatively niche, mainly because it is difficult to make them both stable and inexpensive, and they generally have poorer resistance to airflow. P-P probes, thanks to their good field robustness and the ability to adjust bandwidth flexibly via microphone spacing, are currently the mainstream choice in engineering applications. Sound Power Sound power W is the rate at which a source radiates acoustic energy, with units of watts (W). For any closed measurement surface S enclosing the source, the sound power equals the integral of the normal component of sound intensity over that surface: where n is the unit normal vector pointing outward from the measurement surface. Sound power level Lw is defined as: where W0 = 10-12 W is the reference sound power. Figure 6. Sound Power Measurement Sound power characterizes a source's inherent acoustic emission capability: the total acoustic energy it radiates per unit time. It has little to do with measurement distance or microphone position, and ideally does not depend on how "loud" it is at a particular point in a room. This is fundamentally different from sound pressure and sound intensity. To better understand sound pressure, sound intensity, and sound power, you can imagine noise as water flow. Sound pressure is like the "water pressure" you feel when you put your hand at a certain location (it changes with distance to the nozzle, direction, and the shape of the basin). Sound intensity is like the instantaneous "direction and rate of flow" (it has direction and can even be reflected by walls, creating backflow). Sound power is like "how much water the nozzle sprays per second" - it is a property of the nozzle itself. In measurement, it is obtained by integrating the outward normal flow over a surface surrounding the device. Figure 7. Analogy of Sound Pressure, Sound Intensity, and Sound Power In real projects, the algorithms for sound pressure, sound intensity, and sound power are relatively mature. The hardest part is acquiring the signals accurately and obtaining results quickly. In particular, tasks such as multi-channel microphone arrays, sound intensity, and sound power impose three hard requirements on the data-acquisition front end: low noise and wide dynamic range, strict synchronization and phase consistency, and stable on-site connections and power. SonoDAQ + OpenTest is positioned to provide a "front-end acquisition + synchronous analysis" foundation for engineering acoustics, allowing engineers to focus more on operating-condition control and data interpretation. It delivers the most value in the following types of projects: Sound intensity diagnostics: dual-channel synchronous sampling plus better amplitude/phase consistency management provide a more stable data basis for P-P intensity probes and intensity scanning. Microphone array systems: better aligned with engineering deployment needs in channel scalability, synchronization, and cabling, making it suitable for building expandable distributed test platforms. Sound power and standardized testing: helps engineers quickly lay out measurement points, covering multiple international sound power test standards. With guided configuration, one-click testing, and automatic report export, it saves substantial time and effort for engineers. Figure 8. SonoDAQ + OpenTest To see more clearly how SonoDAQ is connected and configured, typical application cases (such as equipment noise evaluation, sound source localization, and sound power testing), and commonly used BOM lists, please fill in the form below, and we will recommend the best solution to address your needs.

In audio and vibration testing, FFT analysis (Fast Fourier Transform) is one of the tools almost every engineer uses sooner or later: Loudspeaker frequency response Headphone distortion NVH diagnostics Structural resonance troubleshooting Production noise and “mysterious tone” hunting A lot of practical questions are actually asking the same few things: Where is the energy concentrated in frequency? Is it dominated by one tone or a bunch of harmonics? How high is the noise floor? Are there any resonance peaks? FFT is the most universal entry point to answer these questions. This article will help you clarify three things from an engineering perspective: What FFT analysis is How FFT works conceptually How to use FFT correctly and efficiently in practice What Is FFT? In the time domain, a signal is just a waveform changing over time – all components “stacked together” in one trace. You can see it, but it’s hard to tell which frequencies are inside. FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) decomposes a time-domain signal into a sum of sinusoids at different frequencies. In the frequency domain, the signal is represented by frequency + amplitude + phase. In simple terms: Time domain: how the signal moves over time Frequency domain: what frequency components it contains, which are strongest, and how they relate to each other Historically, Fourier’s key idea (early 19th century) was that a complex periodic function can be expressed as a sum of sines and cosines. This evolved into the continuous-time Fourier transform, mapping signals onto a continuous frequency axis. In the computer age, things changed: engineers work with sampled data and typically only have a finite-length record of N samples. That leads to the DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform), which maps N time samples to N discrete frequency bins. FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) is not a different transform. It is a family of algorithms that compute the exact same DFT much more efficiently: Direct DFT: complexity ~ O(N²) FFT: complexity ~ O(N log N) The output X[k] is identical to the DFT result – FFT just gets there far faster by exploiting symmetry and divide-and-conquer. What FFT Is Good at – and What It Isn’t FFT is very good at: Finding deterministic narrowband components Fundamental tones, harmonics, switching frequencies, whistle tones, speed-related lines Looking at broadband distributions Noise floor, 1/f slopes, in-band power, SNR Characterizing system behavior Transfer functions, resonances / anti-resonances, coherence, delay estimation Serving as the foundation of time–frequency analysis STFT, spectrograms, etc. FFT is not good at (or not sufficient on its own for): Strongly non-stationary signals and “instantaneous frequency” For chirps and rapidly changing content, you need STFT, wavelets, or other time–frequency methods, not a single FFT on a long record Separating two extremely close tones below your frequency resolution If the spacing is smaller than your bin resolution (set by N), no algorithm will magically resolve them Turning short data into “long measurements” Zero padding only interpolates the spectrum visually; it does not add new information Before Using FFT: Key Concepts to Get Right To use FFT well, you need to be confident about a few fundamentals: Sampling rate DFT and its interpretation What you actually plot (magnitude, amplitude, power, PSD) Windowing and spectral leakage Averaging Sampling Rate: How High in Frequency You Can See Before FFT, you already made one crucial decision: sampling. A continuous-time signal x(t) is turned into a discrete sequence x[n]=x(n/fs). The sampling rate fsf_sfs​ determines the highest frequency you can observe without aliasing: the Nyquist frequency, fs/2. If the analog signal contains energy above fs/2, it does not disappear – it folds back into the band below Nyquist as aliasing. Once aliasing happens, FFT cannot “undo” it; the information is irretrievably mixed. In practice, you must use an anti-alias filter before the ADC (or before any resampling) to suppress components above Nyquist. Example: A 900 Hz sine sampled at fs=1 kHz will appear at 100 Hz in the discrete spectrum – a classic aliasing artifact. DFT Computation and Interpretation Given N samples x[0]..x[N−1], the DFT is defined as: The inverse transform (IDFT) reconstructs the time signal: Intuitively, X[k] tells you how strongly the signal correlates with a complex exponential at that bin’s frequency. The magnitude X[k] indicates “how much” of that frequency component exists The phase encodes time alignment relative to other components What Are You Plotting? Magnitude, Amplitude, Power, PSD From one set of FFT results X[k], you can create many different “spectra” that look similar but represent different physical quantities. This is where confusion between tools and platforms often arises. Common variants include: Magnitude spectrum |X[k]| Units depend on normalization (e.g., “V·samples”) Useful for locating peaks, harmonics, and general spectral shape Amplitude spectrum Properly scaled magnitude, in physical units (e.g. V) Appropriate for reading off sinusoid amplitudes and doing calibrated measurements Power spectrum |X[k]|² Again, scaling dependent; often used for power/energy comparisons when conventions are fixed Power Spectral Density (PSD) Sxx(f) Units like V²/Hz or Pa²/Hz Used for noise analysis, band power, and comparisons across different FFT lengths If you want to compare noise levels across different FFT sizes, windows, or tools, use PSD (or amplitude spectral density). Raw |X| or  |X|² values are rarely directly comparable. A Concrete Example: Two Tones in Time and Frequency Imagine a signal consisting of two sinusoids at different frequencies. In the time domain, their sum may look like a “wobbly” waveform. In the frequency domain (FFT/PSD), you will see two distinct narrow peaks at the corresponding frequencies. In OpenTest’s FFT analysis, you can visualise both the spectrum and PSD/ASD side by side, making it easy to: Identify tonal components Inspect noise distribution Compare different operating conditions on the same frequency grid Try it yourself: Download the free OpenTest edition and run an FFT on a simple two-tone signal to see both peaks clearly separated. Window Functions and Spectral Leakage: Cleaning Up Spectra In theory, FFT assumes the sampled block contains an integer number of periods and is then repeated periodically. In reality, the record almost never lines up perfectly with an integer number of cycles. When you repeat that block, you get discontinuities at the boundaries, which causes energy to spread into neighboring bins — this is spectral leakage. To reduce leakage, we typically apply a window function to the time record before doing FFT. A window simultaneously affects: Main lobe width Wider main lobe = peaks get broader → it’s harder to separate close tones Side lobe height Lower side lobes = easier to see small peaks near a large one (better dynamic range) Amplitude/energy scaling Windows change the relationship between a pure tone’s true amplitude and the observed peak, as well as the noise floor level Some practical guidelines: Rectangular window Only use when you can ensure coherent sampling (an integer number of periods in the record) and you want the narrowest possible main lobe Hanning (Hann) window A very robust default choice for general acoustics and vibration work Widely used with Welch/PSD methods Hamming Similar to Hann, with slightly different side-lobe behavior, common in communications Blackman / Blackman–Harris Lower side lobes, useful when you need to see small peaks next to big ones, at the cost of a wider main lobe In OpenTest, you can switch between different window functions in the FFT analysis module and immediately see the impact on peak width, side lobes, and noise floor. Averaging: Making Spectra More Stable For noisy or non-stationary signals, a single FFT can look very “spiky” or unstable. By averaging multiple spectra, you obtain a smoother, more repeatable result. Common averaging types include: Linear averaging A simple arithmetic mean of several FFT results Exponential averaging Recent data gets more weight; good for live monitoring when the spectrum should react but not jump wildly Energy (power) averaging Based on power; ensures power-related quantities remain consistent A good averaging configuration strikes a balance between suppressing random fluctuations and preserving genuine changes in the signal. Where Do We Use FFT in Practice? Audio and Acoustics Typical applications include: Finding feedback frequencies, harmonic distortion, and device noise floors Frequency response (transfer function) measurement Room modes / resonance analysis Spectrograms of speech, music, and equipment noise In audio/acoustics, you must be clear about units and conventions: dB SPL, A-weighting, 1/3-octave bands, etc. FFT is the engine; the reporting convention (reference, weighting, bandwidth) must be clearly defined. Vibration and Rotating Machinery Identifying speed-related peaks (1X, 2X, gear mesh frequencies) Structural resonances and mode behavior under different operating conditions Bearing diagnostics, gear whine, imbalance, misalignment For bearing and gearbox analysis, envelope detection/demodulation is often used: Band-pass filter the signal Demodulate and then perform FFT on the envelope to reveal fault frequencies If the rotational speed is changing, a simple FFT will “smear” peaks. In that case, order tracking or synchronous resampling is more appropriate, turning the axis from “frequency” into “order”. Power Electronics and Power Quality Line frequency harmonics (50/60 Hz and multiples), THD, ripple, switching spikes Pre-compliance EMI checks: spectral lines, noise floor, in-band power In power systems, non-coherent sampling is a common issue: if the record length is not an integer number of mains cycles, leakage affects harmonic accuracy. Solutions include synchronous sampling, integer-cycle windows, or specialized harmonic analyzers. RF and Communications (Baseband View) Modulated signal spectra and spectral masks OFDM and multi-carrier spectral analysis, adjacent channel leakage Here, consistency is paramount: Same units Same bandwidth (RBW) Same window, detector, and averaging style FFT itself is straightforward; turning it into comparable power measurements requires tightly defined settings. Imaging and 2D Filtering 2D FFT extends the same idea to images: Edges correspond to high spatial frequencies; smooth areas to low frequencies Low-pass / high-pass filtering, removal of periodic noise, convolution acceleration in the frequency domain The same periodic extension assumption now applies in 2D: discontinuities at image borders produce strong artifacts in the frequency domain. Padding, mirrored borders, or 2D windows are common ways to mitigate this. Turning FFT into an Everyday Engineering Tool From a mathematical standpoint, FFT is not particularly “lightweight”. But in engineering use, the goal is actually simple: See what’s hidden inside the signal more clearly and much faster. When you understand: What FFT really computes How sampling, windowing, scaling, and averaging affect the result When to use spectra vs PSD, and which settings matter for your use case …then FFT stops being an abstract math topic and becomes a practical, everyday tool for acoustics and vibration work – from R&D and validation all the way to production testing. Download and get started now -> or fill out the form below ↓ to schedule a live demo. Explore more features and application stories at www.opentest.com.

Octave-band analysis can be implemented in two fundamentally different ways: FFT binning (integrating PSD/FFT bins into 1/1- and 1/3-octave bands) and a true octave filter bank (standards-oriented bandpass filters + RMS/Leq averaging). In this post, we compare how the two methods work, where their results match, where they diverge (scaling, window ENBW, band-edge weighting, latency, transient response), and how OpenTest supports both for acoustics, NVH, and compliance measurement. For a detailed explanation of the concepts, read this → Octave-Band Analysis: The Mathematical and Engineering Rationale Octave-band filter banks (true octave / CPB filter bank) Parallel bandpass filters + energy detector + time averaging A filter-bank (true octave) analyzer typically: Design a bandpass filter H_b(z) (or H_b(s)) for each band center frequency. Run filters in parallel to obtain band signals y_b(t). Compute band mean-square/power and apply time averaging to output band levels. To be comparable across instruments, filter magnitude responses must satisfy IEC/ANSI tolerance masks (class) for the specified filter set. [1][3] IIR vs FIR: why IIR (cascaded biquads) is common in practice IIR advantages: lower order for a given roll-off, lower compute, good for real-time/embedded; stable when implemented as SOS/biquads. FIR advantages: linear phase is possible (useful when waveform shape matters); design/verification can be more straightforward. For band-level outputs, phase is usually not the primary concern, so IIR filter banks are common. Multirate processing: the “secret weapon” of CPB filter banks Low-frequency CPB bands are very narrow. Implementing them at the full sampling rate is inefficient. A common strategy is to group bands by octave and downsample for low-frequency groups: Low-pass then decimate (e.g., by 2 per octave) for lower-frequency groups. Implement the corresponding bandpass filters at the reduced sampling rate. Ensure adequate anti-aliasing before decimation. Time averaging / time weighting: band levels are statistics, not instantaneous values Band levels typically require time averaging. Common options include block RMS, exponential averaging, or Leq (energy-equivalent level). In sound level meter contexts, IEC 61672-1 defines Fast/Slow time weightings (Fast ~125 ms, Slow ~1 s). [5][6] Engineering implication: different time constants produce different readings, so time weighting must be stated in reports. How to validate that a filter bank behaves “like the standard” Sine sweep: verify passband behavior and adjacent-band isolation; observe time delay effects. Pink/white noise: verify average band levels and variance/stabilization time; check effective bandwidth behavior. Impulse/step: examine ringing and time response (critical for transient use). Cross-check against a known compliant reference instrument/implementation. From band definitions to compliant digital filters: an end-to-end workflow (conceptual) Choose the band system: base-10/base-2, the fraction 1/b (commonly b=3), generate exact fm and f1/f2. Choose performance target: which standard edition and which class/mask tolerance? Choose filter structure: IIR SOS for real-time; FIR or forward-backward filtering if phase/zero-phase is required. Design each bandpass: map f1/f2 into the digital domain correctly (e.g., pre-warp for bilinear transform). Implement multirate if needed: decimate for low-frequency groups with sufficient anti-alias filtering. Verify: magnitude response vs mask; noise tests for effective bandwidth; sweep/impulse tests for time response. Calibrate and report: units and reference quantities, averaging/time weighting, method details. Time response explained: group delay, ringing, and averaging all shape readings A band-level analyzer is a time-domain system (filter → energy detector → smoother), so readings are governed by multiple time scales: Filter group delay: how late events appear in each band. Filter ringing/decay: how long a short pulse “rings” within a band. Energy averaging/time weighting: the time resolution vs fluctuation of the output level. Thus, for transients (impacts, start/stop events, sweeps), different compliant implementations can yield different peak levels and time tracks—consistent with ANSI’s caution. [3] Rule of thumb: for steady-state contributions, use longer averaging for stability; for transient localization, shorten averaging but accept higher variability and lock down algorithm details. Common real-time pitfalls Forgetting anti-aliasing in the decimation chain: low-frequency bands become contaminated by aliasing. Numerical instability of high-Q low-frequency IIR sections: use SOS/biquads and sufficient precision. Averaging in dB: always average in energy/mean-square, then convert to dB. Assuming band energies must sum exactly to total energy: standard filters are not necessarily power-complementary; verify using standard-consistent criteria instead. Octave-Band Filter Bank Analysis in OpenTest OpenTest supports octave-band analysis using a filter-bank approach:1) Connect the device, such as SonoDAQ Pro2) Select the channels and adjust the parameter settings. For an external microphone, enable IEPE and switch to acoustic signal measurement.3) In the Octave-Band Analysis section under Measurement Mode, choose the IEC 61260-1 algorithm. It supports real-time analysis, linear averaging, exponential averaging, and peak hold.4) After configuring the parameters, click the Test button to start the measurement.5) A single recording can be analyzed simultaneously in 1/1-octave, 1/3-octave, 1/6-octave, 1/12-octave, 1/24-octave, and 1/24-octave bands. Figure 1: Octave-Band Filter Bank Analysis in OpenTest FFT binning and FFT synthesis FFT binning: convert a narrowband spectrum into CPB band integrals Estimate spectrum (single FFT, Welch PSD, or STFT). Integrate/sum within each octave/fractional-octave band to obtain band power. This is common in software/offline work because a single FFT provides high-resolution spectrum that can be re-binned into any band system (1/1, 1/3, 1/12, …). Key challenge #1: FFT scaling and window corrections After an FFT, scaling depends on your definitions: 1/N normalization, amplitude vs power vs PSD, one-sided vs two-sided spectrum, and windowing. For noise measurements, ENBW is crucial; ignoring it can introduce systematic offsets. [7] A practical PSD normalization (periodogram form) # convert to one-sided PSD: multiply by 2 except DC (and Nyquist if present) This yields PSD in units of (input unit)²/Hz and supports energy consistency checks by integrating PSD over frequency. Two quick self-checks for scaling White noise check: generate noise with known variance σ²; integrate one-sided PSD over 0..fs/2 and recover ≈σ² (accounting for the ×2 rule). Pure tone check: generate a sine with amplitude A (RMS=A/√2); integrating spectral energy should recover ≈A²/2 (subject to leakage and window choice). If both checks pass, your FFT scaling is likely correct; then partial-bin weighting and octave binning become meaningful. Key challenge #2: band edges rarely align to bins → partial-bin weighting Hard include/exclude decisions at band edges cause step-like errors, especially at low frequency where bands are narrow. Use overlap-based weighting (Section 4.2.4) for the boundary bins. Does zero-padding solve edge misalignment? (common misconception) Zero-padding interpolates the displayed spectrum but does not improve true frequency resolution (which is set by the original window length). It can reduce visual stair-stepping but cannot turn 1–2-bin low-frequency bands into reliable band-level estimates. Fundamental fixes are longer windows or multirate processing/filter banks. Key challenge #3: time–frequency trade-off (window length sets low-frequency accuracy and delay) FFT resolution is Δf = fs/N. Low-frequency 1/3-octave bands can be only a few Hz wide, so achieving enough bins per band requires very large N, increasing latency and smoothing transients. Root cause: 1/3 octave is constant-Q, but STFT uses constant-Δf bins In CPB, band width scales with frequency (Δf_band ∝ f, constant-Q). In STFT, bin spacing is constant (Δf_bin constant). Therefore low-frequency CPB needs extremely fine Δf_bin (long windows), while high frequency is over-resolved. Solution routes: long-window STFT vs multirate STFT vs CQT/wavelets Long-window STFT: simplest, but high latency and transient smearing. Multirate STFT: downsample low-frequency content and FFT at lower fs, similar in spirit to multirate filter banks. Constant-Q transform (CQT) / wavelets: naturally logarithmic resolution, but matching IEC/ANSI masks requires extra calibration/validation. [4] For compliance measurements, standards-oriented filter banks are preferred; for research/feature extraction, CQT/wavelets can be attractive. FFT synthesis: constructing per-band filtering in the frequency domain FFT synthesis pushes the FFT approach closer to a filter bank: Define a frequency-domain weight W_b[k] per band (brick-wall or smooth/mask-like). Compute Y_b[k] = X[k]·W_b[k] and IFFT to get y_b[n]. Compute band RMS/averages from y_b[n]. It can easily implement zero-phase (non-causal) filtering. For strict IEC/ANSI matching, W_b and normalization must be carefully designed and validated. Making FFT synthesis stream-like: OLA, dual windows, and amplitude normalization To output continuous time signals per band, use overlap-add (OLA): frame, window, FFT, apply W_b, IFFT, synthesis window, and OLA. Choose analysis/synthesis windows to satisfy COLA (constant overlap-add) conditions (e.g., Hann with 50% overlap) to avoid periodic level modulation. If the goal is to match standard filters, how should W_b be chosen? W_b[k] depends on what you want to match: Match brick-wall integration: W_b is hard 0/1 within [f1,f2]. Match IEC/ANSI filter behavior: |W_b(f)| approximates the standard mask and effective bandwidth (matches ∫|W_b|²). Match energy complementarity for reconstruction: design Σ_b |W_b(f)|² ≈ 1 (Section 7.6). You typically cannot satisfy all three perfectly at once; define your priority (compliance vs decomposition/reconstruction) up front. Energy-conserving frequency-domain filter banks: why Σ|W_b|² matters If you want band energies to sum to total energy (within numerical error), a common design aims for approximate power complementarity: IEC/ANSI masks do not necessarily enforce strict complementarity, so don’t assume exact additivity in compliance contexts. Welch/averaging strategies: how to make FFT band levels stable Use Welch averaging (segment, window, overlap, average power spectra). Average in the power domain (|X|² or PSD), then convert to dB. For non-stationary signals, consider STFT to obtain time–band matrices. Report window type, overlap, averaging count, and ENBW/CG treatment. FFT-Binning Analysis in OpenTest OpenTest supports octave-band analysis based on FFT binning:1) Connect the device, such asSonoDAQ Pro2) Select the channels and adjust the parameter settings. For an external microphone, enable IEPE and switch to acoustic signal measurement.3) In the Octave-Band Analysis section under Measurement Mode, choose the FFT-based algorithm.4) A single recording can be analyzed simultaneously in 1/1-octave, 1/3-octave, 1/6-octave, 1/12-octave, and 1/24-octave bands. Figure 2: FFT-Binning Octave-Band Analysis in OpenTest Filter-bank vs FFT/FFT synthesis: differences, equivalence conditions, and trade-offs A comparison table DimensionFilter-bank (True Octave / CPB)FFT binning / FFT synthesisStandards complianceEasier to match IEC/ANSI magnitude masks; mainstream for hardware instruments. [1][3]Hard binning behaves like band integration; matching masks requires extra weighting or standard-compliant digital filters.Real-time / latencyCausal real-time possible; latency set by filter order and averaging.Block processing adds at least one window length of delay; low-frequency resolution often forces longer windows.Transient responseContinuous output but affected by group delay/ringing; different compliant implementations may differ. [3]Set by STFT windowing; transients are smeared by windows and sensitive to window type/length.Leakage & correctionsControlled via filter design; leakage can be managed.Strongly depends on window and ENBW/scaling; edge-bin misalignment needs partial weighting. [7]InterpretabilityRMS after bandpass filtering—aligned with sound level meters and analyzers.Spectrum estimation + binning—more statistical; interpretation depends on window/averaging settings.ComputationMany filters in parallel; multirate can reduce cost.One FFT can serve all bands; efficient for offline/batch.Phase & reconstructionIIR is typically nonlinear phase (fine for levels).Frequency weights can be zero-phase; reconstruction needs attention to complementarity and transitions. When do both methods give (almost) the same answers? Band-averaged results typically agree closely when: You compare averaged band levels (not transient peak tracks). The signal is approximately stationary and the observation time is long enough. FFT resolution is fine enough that each band contains enough bins (especially at the lowest band). FFT scaling is correct (one-sided handling, Δf, window U, ENBW/CG where needed). Partial-bin weighting is used at band edges. Why differences grow for transients and short events Differences are driven by mismatched time scales: filter banks have band-dependent group delay and ringing but continuous output; STFT uses a fixed window that sets both frequency resolution and time smoothing. If event duration is comparable to the window length or filter impulse response, results depend strongly on implementation details. Error budget: where mismatches usually come from (and how to locate them quickly) Wrong averaging/combination in dB: must average and sum in the energy domain. Inconsistent FFT scaling: 1/N conventions, one-sided vs two-sided, Δf, window normalization U. Missing window corrections: ENBW for noise; coherent gain/leakage for tones. Using nominal frequencies to compute edges instead of exact definitions. No partial-bin weighting at band boundaries (especially harmful at low frequency). Multirate/anti-alias issues in filter banks. Different averaging time constants/windows between methods. True method differences: brick-wall binning vs standard filter skirts/roll-off imply systematic offsets. A strong debugging approach: first match total mean-square using white noise (scaling/ENBW/partial-bin), then validate band centers and adjacent-band isolation using swept sines or tones. Engineering checklist: make 1/3-octave analysis correct, stable, and reproducible Choose a method: compliance → filter bank; offline statistics → FFT binning For regulations/type testing/instrument comparability: prefer IEC/ANSI-compliant filter banks and report standard edition and class. [1][3] For offline processing, large datasets, or flexible band definitions: FFT binning can be efficient, but scaling and boundary weighting must be rigorous. If you need per-band time-domain signals (modulation, envelope, etc.): consider FFT synthesis or explicit filter banks. Selecting FFT parameters from the lowest band (example) Example: fs=48 kHz, lowest band of interest is 20 Hz (1/3 octave). Its bandwidth is only a few Hz. If you want at least M=10 bins per band, you may need Δf_bin ≤ bandwidth/10, implying a very large N (e.g., ~100k points; 2^17=131072). This illustrates why real-time compliance often favors filter banks. Typical mistakes that prevent results from matching Summing magnitude |X| instead of power |X|² or PSD. Averaging in dB instead of in linear power/mean-square. Ignoring ENBW/window scaling for noise. [7] Computing band edges from nominal frequencies. Not stating time weighting/averaging conventions (Fast/Slow/Leq). [5][6] Recommended validation flow (regardless of implementation) Tone-at-center test (or sweep): verify that energy peaks in the correct band and adjacent-band rejection behaves as expected. White/pink noise: verify expected spectral shape in band levels and assess stability/averaging time. Cross-implementation comparison: compare your implementation with a known reference on identical signals; isolate scaling vs definition vs filter-skirt differences. Record and freeze parameters (band definition, windowing, averaging) in the test report. Reproducibility checklist: include these in reports so others can recompute your levels Band definition: base-10 or base-2? b in 1/b? exact vs nominal used for computation? reference frequency fr? Implementation: standard filter bank (IIR/FIR, multirate) vs FFT binning/synthesis; software/library versions. Sampling/preprocessing: fs, detrending/DC removal, anti-alias filtering, resampling. Time averaging: Leq / block RMS / exponential; time constants, block size, overlap, averaging frames; Fast/Slow context if relevant. FFT details (if used): window type, N, hop, zero-padding, PSD normalization, one-sided handling, ENBW/CG, partial-bin weighting. Calibration/units: input units and reference quantities (e.g., 20 µPa), sensor calibration factors and dates. Output definition: RMS vs peak vs band power; 10log vs 20log conventions; any band aggregation steps. If you remember one line: document “band definition + time averaging + FFT scaling/window treatment (if any)”. Most disputes disappear. Quick formulas and numeric example (ready for code/report) Base-10 one-third-octave constants G = 10^(3/10) ≈ 1.995262 r = 10^(1/10) ≈ 1.258925 # adjacent center-frequency ratio k = 10^(1/20) ≈ 1.122018 # edge multiplier about center f1 = fm / k f2 = fm * k Example: the 1 kHz one-third-octave band fm = 1000 Hz f1 = 1000 / 1.122018 ≈ 891.25 Hz f2 = 1000 * 1.122018 ≈ 1122.02 Hz Δf ≈ 230.77 Hz Q ≈ 4.33 OpenTest integrates both methods. Download and get started now -> or fill out the form below ↓ to schedule a live demo. Explore more features and application stories at www.opentest.com. References [1] IEC 61260-1:2014 PDF sample (iTeh): https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/13383/3c4ae3e762b540cc8111744cb8f0ae8e/IEC-61260-1-2014.pdf [3] ANSI S1.11-2004 preview PDF (ASA/ANSI): https://webstore.ansi.org/preview-pages/ASA/preview_ANSI%2BS1.11-2004.pdf [4] HEAD acoustics Application Note: FFT - 1/n-Octave Analysis - Wavelet (filter bank description): https://cdn.head-acoustics.com/fileadmin/data/global/Application-Notes/SVP/FFT-nthOctave-Wavelet_e.pdf [5] IEC 61672-1:2013 (IEC page): https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/5708 [6] NTi Audio Know-how: Fast/Slow time weighting (IEC 61672-1 context): https://www.nti-audio.com/en/support/know-how/fast-slow-impulse-time-weighting-what-do-they-mean [7] MathWorks: ENBW definition example: https://www.mathworks.com/help/signal/ref/enbw.html

Octave-band analysis converts detailed spectra into standardized 1/1- and 1/3-octave bands using constant-percentage bandwidth on a logarithmic frequency axis. In this post, we explain the mathematical basis of CPB, why IEC 61260-1 and ANSI S1.11 define octave bands the way they do, and how band levels are computed in practice (FFT binning vs. filter-bank RMS). The goal: repeatable, comparable results for acoustics, NVH, and compliance measurements. What is octave-band analysis, and what problem does it solve? Octave-band analysis is a family of spectrum analysis methods that partition the frequency axis on a logarithmic scale into band-pass bands. Each band has a constant ratio between its upper and lower cut-off frequencies (constant percentage bandwidth, CPB). Within each band we ignore fine line-spectrum details and focus on total energy / RMS (or power) in that band. In other words, it is not “what happens at every 1 Hz,” but “how energy is distributed across equal relative bandwidths.” This representation naturally matches human hearing and many engineering systems, whose frequency resolution is often closer to a relative (log) scale than a fixed-Hz scale. It is a common reporting format required by many standards: room acoustics parameters, sound insulation ratings, environmental noise, machinery noise, wind/road noise, etc., often use 1/3-octave bands. From linear Hz to log frequency: why CPB looks more like an engineering language Using equal-width frequency bins (e.g., every 10 Hz) to accumulate energy leads to inconsistent behavior across the spectrum: At low frequencies, a 10 Hz bin may be too wide and can smear details. At high frequencies, a 10 Hz bin may be too narrow, giving higher variance and less stable estimates for random noise. In contrast, CPB bandwidth grows with frequency (Δf ∝ f). Each band covers a similar relative change, improving stability and repeatability—important for standardized testing. A visual intuition: bandwidth increases on a linear axis, but is uniform on a log axis Figure 1: the same 1/3-octave bands plotted on a linear frequency axis—bandwidth appears larger at high frequencies Each horizontal segment represents a 1/3-octave band [f1, f2]; the short vertical mark is the band center frequency fm. On a linear axis, higher-frequency bands look wider. Figure 2: the same bands on a logarithmic frequency axis—bands become evenly spaced (the essence of CPB) Once the horizontal axis is logarithmic, these bands appear equal-width/equal-spacing; this is exactly what “constant percentage bandwidth” means. These two figures capture the core idea: octave-band analysis uses equal steps on a log-frequency scale, not equal steps in Hz. Standards and terminology: what do IEC/ANSI/ISO systems actually specify? In practice, “doing 1/3-octave analysis” is constrained by more than just band edges. Standards specify (or strongly imply): how center frequencies are defined (exact vs nominal), the octave ratio definition (base-10 vs base-2), filter tolerances/classes, and even the measurement/averaging conventions used to form band levels. IEC 61260-1:2014 highlights: base-10 ratio, reference frequency, and center-frequency formulas IEC 61260-1:2014 is a key specification for octave-band and fractional-octave-band filters. It adopts a base-10 design: the octave frequency ratio is G = 10^(3/10) ≈ 1.99526 (very close to 2, but not exactly 2). The reference frequency is fr = 1000 Hz. It provides formulas for the exact mid-band (center) frequencies and specifies that the geometric mean of band-edge frequencies equals the center frequency. [1] Key formulas (rearranged from the standard): [1] If the fractional denominator b is odd (e.g., 1, 3, 5, ...): If b is even (e.g., 2, 4, 6, ...): And always: Why does the even-b case look “half-step shifted”? Intuitively, the center-frequency grid is evenly spaced on log(f). When b is even, IEC chooses a half-step offset relative to fr so that band edges align more neatly in common reporting conventions. In practice, a robust implementation is to generate the exact fm sequence using the standard’s formula, then compute edges via f1 = fm / G^(1/(2b)) and f2 = fm * G^(1/(2b)), and only then label bands by the usual nominal frequencies. View the data with OpenTest (IEC 61260-1 Octave-Band Analysis) -> Band edges, center frequency, and the bandwidth designator b Standards commonly use 1/b as the “bandwidth designator”: 1/1 is one octave, 1/3 is one-third octave, etc. [1] Once (G, b, fr) are chosen, the entire band set (centers and edges) is fixed mathematically. Exact vs nominal: why two “center frequencies” appear for the same band “Exact” center frequencies are used for mathematically consistent definitions and filter design; “nominal” values are used for labeling and reporting. [1] ISO 266:1997 defines preferred frequencies for acoustics measurements based on ISO 3 preferred-number series (R10), referenced to 1000 Hz. [2] As a result, the exact geometric sequence is typically labeled with familiar nominal values such as: 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, …, 1k, 1.25k, 1.6k, 2k, 2.5k, 3.15k, …, 20k. Implementation tip: compute edges from exact frequencies; only round/display as nominal. This avoids drifting away from the standard. Base-10 vs base-2: why standards don’t insist on an exact 2:1 octave Although “octave” is often thought of as 2:1, IEC 61260-1 specifies base-10 (G=10^(3/10)) rather than G=2. Key motivations include: Alignment with decimal preferred-number series (ISO 266 is tied to R10). [2] International consistency: IEC 61260-1:2014 specifies base-10 and notes that base-2 designs are less likely to remain compliant far from the reference frequency. [1] In base-10, one-third octave corresponds to 10^(1/10) ≈ 1.258925 (also interpretable as 1/10 decade), which yields a clean mapping: 10 one-third-octave bands per decade. “10 one-third-octave bands = 1 decade”: why this matters With base-10 one-third-octave spacing, each step multiplies frequency by r = 10^(1/10). Therefore: 10 consecutive 1/3-octave bands multiply frequency by exactly 10 (one decade). This matches ISO 266/R10 conventions and simplifies tables, plotting, and communication. Standardization values readability and consistency as much as raw mathematical purity. Figure 3: Base-10 one-third-octave spacing—10 equal ratio steps per decade (×10 in frequency) ANSI S1.11 / ANSI/ASA S1.11: tolerance classes and a transient-signal caution ANSI S1.11 (and later ANSI/ASA adoptions aligned with IEC 61260-1) specify performance requirements for filter sets and analyzers, including tolerance classes (often class 0/1/2 depending on edition). [3][4] A practical caution in ANSI documents: for transient signals, different compliant implementations can produce different results. [3] This highlights that time response (group delay, ringing, averaging time constants) matters for transient analysis. What do class/mask/effective bandwidth actually control? “I used 1/3-octave bands” is not just about nominal band edges. Standards aim to ensure different instruments/algorithms yield comparable results by constraining: Frequency spacing: center-frequency sequence and edge definitions (base-10, exact/nominal, f1/f2). Magnitude response tolerance (mask): allowable ripple near passband and required attenuation away from center. Energy consistency for broadband noise: constraints on effective bandwidth so band levels are comparable across implementations. Effective bandwidth matters because real filters are not ideal brick walls. For broadband noise, the output energy depends on ∫|H(f)|^2 S(f)df. Differences in passband ripple, skirts, and roll-off can cause systematic offsets. Standards constrain effective bandwidth to keep such offsets within acceptable limits. [1][3][4] The transient caution is not a contradiction: masks mainly constrain steady-state frequency-domain behavior, while transients depend on phase/group delay, ringing, and time averaging. [3] Mathematics: band definitions, bandwidth, Q, and band indexing CPB and equal spacing on a log axis CPB is equivalent to equal-width spacing in log-frequency. If u = log(f), then every band spans a fixed Δu. Many spectra (e.g., 1/f-type) look smoother and statistically more stable in log frequency. Band-edge formulas from the geometric-mean definition (general 1/b form) IEC defines the center frequency as the geometric mean of the edges: fm = sqrt(f1 f2). [1] For 1/b octave bands, the edge ratio is typically f2/f1 = G^(1/b), where G is the octave ratio. Then: For base-10 one-third octave (b=3): G=10^(3/10). Adjacent center ratio is r = G^(1/3) = 10^(1/10) ≈ 1.258925; edge multiplier is k = 10^(1/20) ≈ 1.122018. Q-factor and resolution: octave analysis is constant-Q analysis Define Q = fm / (f2 − f1). For CPB bands, Δf = f2 − f1 scales with fm, so Q depends only on b and G (not on frequency). Quick reference (base-10, fr=1000 Hz): Fractional-octaveBand ratio f2/f1Relative bandwidth Δf/fmQ = fm/Δf1/11.9952620.7045921.4191/21.4125380.3471072.8811/31.2589250.2307684.3331/61.1220180.1151938.6811/121.0592540.05757317.369 Interpretation: for 1/3 octave, Q≈4.33 and each band is about 23% wide relative to its center. Finer bands (1/6, 1/12) give higher resolution but higher variance for random noise and typically require longer averaging. Band numbering (integer index) and formulaic enumeration Implementations often use an integer band index x. In IEC, x appears directly in the center-frequency formula: fm = fr * G^(x/b). [1] This provides a stable way to enumerate all bands covering a target frequency range and ensures contiguous, standard-consistent edges. For base-10: so and you can invert as Figure 4: Q factor for common fractional-octave bandwidths (base-10 definition) Two meanings of “1/3 octave”: base-2 vs base-10—do not mix them Some literature uses base-2: adjacent centers are 2^(1/3). IEC 61260-1 and much modern acoustics practice use base-10: adjacent centers are 10^(1/10). A quick check: if nominal centers look like 1.0k → 1.25k → 1.6k → 2.0k (R10 style), it is likely base-10. Mathematical definition of band levels: from PSD integration to dB reporting Continuous-frequency view: integrate PSD within the band Octave-band level is essentially the integral of power spectral density over a frequency band. For sound pressure p(t): For vibration (velocity/acceleration), the same logic applies with different units and reference quantities. Key point: because dB is logarithmic, any summation or averaging must be performed in the linear power/mean-square domain first. Two discrete implementations: filter-bank RMS vs FFT/PSD binning Filter-bank method: y_b(t)=BandPass_b{x(t)}, then compute mean(y_b^2) as band mean-square (optionally with time averaging). FFT/PSD binning method: estimate S_pp(f) (e.g., via periodogram/Welch), then numerically integrate/sum bins within [f1,f2]. For long, stationary signals, averaged results can be very close. For transients, sweeps, and short events, they often differ. Be explicit about what spectrum you have: magnitude, power, PSD (and dB/Hz) Magnitude spectrum |X(f)|: amplitude units (e.g., Pa), useful for tones/harmonics. Power spectrum |X(f)|²: mean-square units (Pa²). Power spectral density (PSD): mean-square per Hz (Pa²/Hz), most common for noise. Because octave-band levels represent band mean-square/power, you must end up integrating/summing in Pa² (or analogous) regardless of starting representation. Frequency resolution and one-sided spectra: Δf, 0..fs/2, and the “×2” rule FFT bin spacing is Δf = fs/N. A typical discrete approximation is: If you use a one-sided spectrum (0..fs/2), to conserve energy you typically multiply all non-DC and non-Nyquist bins by 2 (because negative-frequency power is folded into the positive side). Different software handles these conventions differently, so align definitions before comparing results. Window corrections: coherent gain (tones) vs ENBW (noise) are different Windowing reduces spectral leakage but changes scaling: For tone amplitude: correct by coherent gain (CG), often CG = sum(w)/N. For broadband noise/PSD: correct by equivalent noise bandwidth (ENBW), e.g., ENBW = fs·sum(w²)/(sum(w))². [9] CG controls peak amplitude; ENBW controls average noise-floor area. Octave-band levels are energy statistics and are more sensitive to ENBW. WindowCoherent Gain (CG)ENBW (bins)Rectangular1.0001.000Hann0.5001.500Hamming0.5401.363Blackman0.4201.727 Partial-bin weighting: what to do when band edges do not align to FFT bins Band edges rarely land exactly on bin frequencies. Treat PSD as approximately constant within each bin of width Δf, and weight boundary bins by their overlap fraction: This produces smoother, more physically consistent band levels when N or band edges change. Figure 5: Partial-bin weighting schematic when band edges do not align with FFT bins A unifying formula: both methods compute ∫|H_b(f)|² S_xx(f) df Both filter-bank and PSD binning can be written as: Brick-wall binning corresponds to |H_b|² being 1 inside [f1,f2] and 0 outside. A true standards-compliant filter has a roll-off and ripple, which is why standards constrain masks and effective bandwidth. Band aggregation: composing 1-octave from 1/3-octave, and forming total levels Under ideal partitioning and energy accounting: Three adjacent 1/3-octave bands can be combined to approximate one full octave band. Summing all band energies over a covered range yields the total energy. Always combine in the energy domain. If L_i are band levels in dB, energies are E_i = 10^(L_i/10). Then: IEC 61260-1 notes that fractional-octave results can be combined to form wider-band levels. [1] Effective bandwidth: why standards specify it Real filters are not ideal rectangles. For white noise (constant PSD S0), output mean-square is: For non-white spectra such as pink noise (PSD ~ 1/f), standards may define normalized effective bandwidth with weighting to maintain comparability across typical engineering noise spectra. [1] Practical implication: FFT “hard-binning” implicitly assumes a brick-wall filter with B_eff = (f2 − f1). A compliant octave filter has skirts, so B_eff can differ slightly (and by class). To match results, either approximate the standard’s |H(f)|² in the frequency domain or document the methodological difference. Why 1/3 octave is favored (math + perception + engineering trade-offs) Information density is “just right”: finer than 1 octave, steadier than very fine fractions A single octave band can be too coarse and hide spectral shape; very fine fractions (e.g., 1/12, 1/24) can be unstable and expensive: Higher estimator variance for random noise (each band captures less energy). More computation and higher reporting burden. Often more detail than regulations or rating schemes need. One-third octave is the classic compromise: enough resolution for engineering insight, stable enough for standardized measurements, and broadly supported by instruments and software. Psychoacoustics: critical bands in mid-frequencies are close to 1/3 octave Many psychoacoustics references describe ~24 critical bands across the audible range, and in the mid-frequency region the critical-bandwidth is often similar to a 1/3-octave bandwidth. [7][8] This makes 1/3 octave a natural intermediate representation for problems tied to perceived sound, while still being more standardized than Bark/ERB scales. Direct standards/application pull: many workflows mandate 1/3 octave I/O Once major standards define inputs/outputs in 1/3 octave, ecosystems (instruments, software, reporting templates) converge around it. Examples: Building acoustics ratings: ISO 717-1 references one-third-octave bands for single-number quantity calculations. [5] Room acoustics parameters (e.g., reverberation time) are commonly reported in octave/one-third-octave bands (ISO 3382 series). [6] Extra base-10 benefits: R10 tables, 10 bands/decade, readability 10 bands per decade: multiplying frequency by 10 corresponds to exactly 10 one-third-octave steps (very clean for log plots). R10 preferred numbers: 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30, 8.00 (×10^n) are widely recognized and easy to communicate. Compared with base-2, decimal labeling is less awkward and cross-standard ambiguity is reduced. Octave-band analysis is typically implemented using either FFT binning or a filter bank. Keep reading -> Octave-Band Analysis Guide: FFT Binning vs. Filter Bank OpenTest integrates both methods. Download and get started now -> or fill out the form below ↓ to schedule a live demo. Explore more features and application stories at www.opentest.com. References [1] IEC 61260-1:2014 PDF sample (iTeh): https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/13383/3c4ae3e762b540cc8111744cb8f0ae8e/IEC-61260-1-2014.pdf [2] ISO 266:1997, Acoustics - Preferred frequencies (ISO): https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/ [3] ANSI S1.11-2004 preview PDF (ASA/ANSI): https://webstore.ansi.org/preview-pages/ASA/preview_ANSI%2BS1.11-2004.pdf [4] ANSI/ASA S1.11-2014/Part 1 / IEC 61260-1:2014 preview: https://webstore.ansi.org/preview-pages/ASA/preview_ANSI%2BASA%2BS1.11-2014%2BPart%2B1%2BIEC%2B61260-1-2014%2B%28R2019%29.pdf [5] ISO 717-1:2020 abstract (mentions one-third-octave usage): https://www.iso.org/standard/77435.html [6] ISO 3382-2:2008 abstract (room acoustics parameters): https://www.iso.org/standard/36201.html [7] Ansys Help: Bark scale and critical bands (mentions midrange close to third octave): https://ansyshelp.ansys.com/public/Views/Secured/corp/v252/en/Sound_SAS_UG/Sound/UG_SAS/bark_scale_and_critical_bands_179506.html [8] Simon Fraser University Sonic Studio Handbook: Critical Band and Critical Bandwidth: https://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio-webdav/cmns/Handbook5/handbook/Critical_Band.html [9] MathWorks: ENBW definition example: https://www.mathworks.com/help/signal/ref/enbw.html

From the outside, a measurement microphone looks deceptively simple. But in real-world engineering, its interface options are surprisingly diverse: Lemo, BNC, Microdot, 10-32 UNF, M5, SMB… Many newcomers to acoustics ask questions like: Why can’t microphone interfaces be standardized? Why are cables often not interchangeable between microphones? What power and signal schemes are hidden behind different connectors? This article provides a structured overview of common measurement microphone interfaces, looking at physical connectors, powering methods, cable characteristics, and typical application-driven selection. Main Physical Interfaces for Measurement Microphones Below is a connector-by-connector summary, including the typical powering approach for each. Lemo (5-pin, 7-pin): The Classic Solution for Externally Polarized Microphones Lemo is a precision circular multi-pin connector and is the most common choice for externally polarized measurement microphones. The Lemo B series is widely used (e.g., 0B, 1B, 2B), and most standard measurement microphones adopt the Lemo 1B interface. Key Characteristics A multi-pin connector can carry multiple signals simultaneously, such as: Microphone output (analog signal) External polarization high voltage (typically 200 V) Preamplifier power supply Calibration/identification signals Additional benefits: Very reliable mechanical locking Well-suited for lab environments, metrology, and semi-anechoic chamber measurements where stability and traceability matter Notes on External Polarization Common polarization voltage is 200 V; some systems support switching between 0 V / 200 V Polarization voltage stability affects microphone sensitivity; in engineering practice, sensitivity variation is often treated as approximately proportional to voltage variation The preamplifier is typically powered separately (up to 120 V) but delivered via the same multi-pin connector Maximum output voltage can reach 50 Vp Includes pins for charge injection methods Separate output and ground paths help achieve lower noise In metrology labs, type testing, acoustic calibration, and high-precision semi-anechoic chamber work, the combination of “externally polarized microphone + Lemo multi-pin connector” is essentially a standard configuration. When not to use Lemo: Harsh environments with heavy contamination, oil exposure, and salt spray High costs of cables and connectors require careful trade-offs in field engineering applications BNC: The Most Common External Connector for IEPE Microphones Names like IEPE / ICP / CCP refer to the same general technology route: constant-current powering, where power and signal are transmitted on the same line (Constant Current Powering). In this system, the most common physical connector is the coaxial BNC. Interface and Powering Characteristics Coaxial structure, ideal for analog voltage transmission Bayonet lock (quick and reliable plug/unplug) Supports longer cable runs with good noise immunity Low cost and highly universal Typical IEPE Powering Parameters Constant current: 2–20 mA (common settings include 2 mA, 4 mA, 8 mA, etc.) Compliance voltage (supply capability): typically 18–24 V Maximum output voltage: generally around 8 Vp If the constant current is too low or the compliance voltage is insufficient, the maximum output signal swing is limited—directly affecting the maximum measurable SPL and the linear measurement range. In everyday testing such as engineering noise measurements, NVH, and environmental noise work, “IEPE microphone + BNC” has become the de facto standard. When not to use BNC: Applications requiring long-distance transmission of high-frequency signals, where signal attenuation becomes significant Applications involving frequent plugging and unplugging, to avoid an increased risk of poor electrical contact Microdot (10-32 UNF / M5): Lightweight Connectivity for Small Microphones Microdot is a threaded miniature coax connector widely used for small sensors (compact measurement microphones, accelerometers, etc.). It commonly uses a 10-32 UNF thread. What “10-32 UNF” Really Means This is simply an imperial fine-thread standard: Nominal diameter: 0.19 inch ≈ 4.826 mm Pitch: 1/32 inch ≈ 0.7938 mm Because 10-32 UNF is the typical thread used on Microdot connectors, the term “10-32 UNF” is often used informally to refer to the Microdot interface itself. What about M5? M5 is a metric thread standard: Nominal diameter: 5 mm Pitch: 0.8 mm Its dimensions are close to 10-32 UNF, and when tolerances are not extremely strict it can serve as a substitute—commonly seen in accelerometers or vibration microphones. Interface Characteristics Very compact; ideal for lightweight setups Threaded locking provides strong mechanical stability Commonly paired with IEPE powering Best for short runs and high-speed signal transmission When microphones must be placed in tight spaces, or where sensor mass/size is critical, Microdot is a common choice for compact, high-density installations. When not to use Microdot: Applications requiring quick connect/disconnect or frequent sensor replacement Use in systems with low constraints on installation space and requiring large-size connectors or high-power transmission, to avoid increased connection complexity and cost SMB (SubMiniature B): For High-Density Multi-Channel or Internal Connections SMB is a small “push-on” coaxial connector. Interface Characteristics Compact size supports high channel density Push-on structure enables fast connection Better high-frequency performance than BNC More suitable for semi-permanent internal wiring SMB is often best viewed as an engineering connector used inside equipment, rather than a field-plugging standard. When not to use Microdot: Applications involving frequent plugging and unplugging or repeated mechanical stress Use as a front-end connection interface for external devices, to avoid structural damage and reduced reliability Extended Interface Function: TEDS and Smart Identification In multi-channel and integrated systems, TEDS (Transducer Electronic Data Sheet) is increasingly common. By integrating a small memory chip into the sensor or cable, TEDS can store: Model and serial number Sensitivity Calibration date and other parameters Compatible front-end hardware or acquisition software can automatically read TEDS to: Identify the sensor type on each channel Load sensitivity and calibration coefficients automatically Reduce manual entry errors Save calibration time and labor At the connector level, TEDS is typically implemented by using certain pins in multi-pin Lemo connectors, or via overlay methods in specific BNC-based solutions. When planning an interface system, it’s wise to consider early on whether TEDS support is required. Why Are There So Many Interfaces? Connector diversity is best explained from three perspectives: Different Polarization and Powering Schemes Externally polarized microphones (≈ 200 V polarization) → better suited to multi-pin connectors like Lemo Prepolarized + IEPE systems → better suited to coaxial connectors like BNC / Microdot / SMB Different Scenarios and Priorities Laboratory / metrology: high stability, multiple signals in one cable, secure locking → Lemo Field engineering / environmental measurement: convenient wiring, strong universality → BNC + IEPE Miniaturization / high-density arrays: size and channel density first → Microdot / SMB Long Product Lifecycles and Backward Compatibility Measurement systems often have lifecycles of 10–20 years or more To avoid forcing users to replace large numbers of cables and front-end systems, manufacturers typically continue existing interface ecosystems Under long lifecycle constraints, “full unification” is often impractical and offers limited engineering return Typical Application Mapping (Quick Reference) Engineering noise, NVH, vibration/noise tests: BNC / MicrodotEasy wiring, many channels, low maintenance cost Precision lab measurement, type testing, metrology calibration: Lemo 7-pin / 5-pinSupports polarization HV and multiple signals; suitable for traceable high-precision measurement Acoustic arrays, multi-channel acquisition card systems: Microdot / SMBHigh channel density, compact wiring, easier system integration Long-term environmental noise monitoring systems: BNC / customized protected connectorsFocus on weather resistance, waterproofing, salt fog resistance, and stable long-distance transmission Conclusion The variety of measurement microphone interfaces is mainly the result of trade-offs between technology routes, application requirements, and historical compatibility—not simply a “lack of standards”. Taking NVH testing as an example: if an existing system uses BNC connectors to connect accelerometers, high-frequency signal attenuation and intermittent contact issues may occur in multi-channel array measurements. To improve connection reliability and signal quality, LEMO connectors with locking mechanisms and superior vibration resistance should be selected. After replacement, signal transmission stability is significantly improved, noise interference is reduced, and the consistency of test data is enhanced. You are welcome to learn more about microphone functions and hardware solutions on our website and use the “Get in touch” form to contact the CRYSOUND team.